Wpływ papierosów na płodność, ciążę oraz rozwijające się dziecko
Temat palenia papierosów w ciąży praktycznie od zawsze wywołuje niemałe emocje wśród osób zainteresowanych tym zagadnieniem. Na portalach informacyjnych poświęconych ciąży można natknąć się na przeróżne opinie, począwszy od bezwzględnej konieczności rzucenia palenia po zajściu w ciążę, a skończywszy na mniej restrykcyjnych zaleceniach.
W cyklu krótkich artykułów poświęconych tematyce palenia podczas w ciąży znajdziecie Państwo odnośniki do badań naukowych, z których czerpano informacje podczas pisania tego opracowania. Daje to pewność, że wiedza tu zawarta jest rzetelna i poparta solidnymi naukowymi argumentami. Pragniemy jednocześnie zaznaczyć, iż jako osoby profesjonalnie zajmujące się ciążą oraz stanami z nią związanymi, jesteśmy głęboko przekonani, iż palenie papierosów wywiera szereg niekorzystnych zmian zarówno w organizmie matki jak i płodu, prowadząc do wielu niepożądanych zdarzeń, które mogą mieć miejsce podczas ciąży.
Wszystkie dostępne obecnie dane pochodzące z badań naukowych wskazują, że produkty zawierające nikotynę nie są związane z jakimikolwiek korzyściami zdrowotnymi, dlatego ich przyjmowanie w jakiejkolwiek postaci – zwłaszcza w okresie ciąży – powinno być unikane.
Przede wszystkim należy powiedzieć jasno i wyraźnie, że palenie papierosów od lat pozostaje najważniejszym czynnikiem ryzyka mającym udowodniony negatywny wpływ na przebieg ciąży, który podlega całkowitej modyfikacji. Na ten aspekt zdrowia matki i jej nienarodzonego dziecka największy wpływ ma więc właśnie nikt inny, jak tylko ona sama. Z tego względu wszystkie ciężarne powinny być podczas rutynowych wizyt lekarskich pytane o palenie papierosów oraz w razie odpowiedzi twierdzącej – być aktywnie motywowane do całkowitego rzucenia nałogu. Kobiety aktywnie palące w trakcie ciąży powinny udzielić lekarzowi szczerej informacji na temat ilości wypalanych papierosów, istnieje bowiem prosta liniowa zależność między ich dzienną ilością a ryzykiem powikłań ciążowych. Im mniej się więc powie, tym gorzej dla nienarodzonego jeszcze dziecka.
Ciąża jest doprawdy unikalną okazją, która stanowi wielką motywację dla ciężarnej do zerwania z obecnym nałogiem nikotynowym. Dokładna wiedza na temat zagrożeń dla płodu związanych z paleniem papierosów dodatkowo zwiększa efektywność podejmowanych prób ich rzucenia, w dużej części okazują się one być skuteczne – dotyczyć to może nawet 75% ciężarnych. Dlatego pracownicy służby zdrowia, i to nie tylko lekarze powinni aktywnie zachęcać ciężarne kobiety do zerwania z paleniem jednocześnie uświadamiając, jakie negatywne konsekwencje niesie za sobą ciągłe trwanie w nałogu – daje to szanse na prawidłowy przebieg ciąży bez przykrych komplikacji potencjalnie związanych z paleniem papierosów.
Ostatnimi czasy mówi się sporo na temat innych używek zawierających nikotynę, według zapewnień producentów bez towarzyszącej zawartości innych szkodliwych substancji smolistych. Nikotyna zawarta w klasycznych papierosach może być bowiem przyjmowana również w innych postaciach jak np. cygarach, fajkach wodnych, czy modnych ostatnio e-papierosach. Te ostatnie warto omówić nieco szerzej, ich producenci bowiem zachwalają mniejszą lub nawet brak szkodliwości e-papierosów z powodu mniejszej zawartości substancji smolistych w porównaniu do tradycyjnych papierosów. Należy jednak jasno podkreślić, iż nie oznacza to, że te produkty są zupełnie nieszkodliwe, obserwowano bowiem negatywne skutki przyjmowania nikotyny w tej właśnie formie. Jednak z racji krótkiego czasu obecności na rynku dane naukowe oraz przeprowadzone dotychczas badania są obarczone wieloma ograniczeniami i niewiadomymi.
Poza nikotyną w papierosach znajduje się średnio 2500 innych substancji, których bezpośrednie działanie toksyczne zostało już do tej pory stosunkowo dobrze udokumentowane. Z tej długiej listy należy wymienić chociażby amoniak, wielopierścieniowe węglowodory aromatyczne, związki cyjanku, tlenek azotu, chlorek winylu. Dalej mówi się o 4000 do nawet 100 000 substancji związanych z wydychanym dymem papierosów, należy jednak mocno zaznaczyć, iż działanie większości z nich, także na płód ludzki, nadal nie jest nadal wystarczająco dobrze poznane.
Zachęcamy zatem do zapoznania się z dalszą częścią opracowania, gdzie znajdą Państwo wszystkie potrzebne informacje na temat wpływu papierosów na przebieg ciąży, stan płodu, laktację oraz płodność.
Bibliografia
- Heffner LJ, Sherman CB, Speizer FE, Weiss ST. Clinical and environmental predictors of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 81:750.
- Tong VT, Dietz PM, Morrow B, et al. Trends in Smoking Before, During, and After Pregnancy — Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, United States, 40 Sites, 2000–2010 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6206a1.htm?s_cid=ss6206a1_e (Accessed on November 08, 2013).
- Siu AL, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral and Pharmacotherapy Interventions for Tobacco Smoking Cessation in Adults, Including Pregnant Women: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med 2015; 163:622.
- Baba S, Wikström AK, Stephansson O, Cnattingius S. Influence of smoking and snuff cessation on risk of preterm birth. Eur J Epidemiol 2012; 27:297.
- Gupta PC, Subramoney S. Smokeless tobacco use, birth weight, and gestational age: population based, prospective cohort study of 1217 women in Mumbai, India. BMJ 2004; 328:1538.
- Gupta PC, Subramoney S. Smokeless tobacco use and risk of stillbirth: a cohort study in Mumbai, India. Epidemiology 2006; 17:47.
- Steyn K, de Wet T, Saloojee Y, et al. The influence of maternal cigarette smoking, snuff use and passive smoking on pregnancy outcomes: the Birth To Ten Study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2006; 20:90.
- Wikström AK, Cnattingius S, Stephansson O. Maternal use of Swedish snuff (snus) and risk of stillbirth. Epidemiology 2010; 21:772.
- Gunnerbeck A, Wikström AK, Bonamy AK, et al. Relationship of maternal snuff use and cigarette smoking with neonatal apnea. Pediatrics 2011; 128:503.
- Burton GJ, Palmer ME, Dalton KJ. Morphometric differences between the placental vasculature of non-smokers, smokers and ex-smokers. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1989; 96:907.
- Larsen LG, Clausen HV, Jønsson L. Stereologic examination of placentas from mothers who smoke during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186:531.
- Bush PG, Mayhew TM, Abramovich DR, et al. A quantitative study on the effects of maternal smoking on placental morphology and cadmium concentration. Placenta 2000; 21:247.
- Lehtovirta P, Forss M. The acute effect of smoking on intervillous blood flow of the placenta. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1978; 85:729.
- Benowitz NL. Nicotine replacement therapy during pregnancy. JAMA 1991; 266:3174.
- Xiao D, Huang X, Yang S, Zhang L. Direct effects of nicotine on contractility of the uterine artery in pregnancy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007; 322:180.
- Sekhon HS, Keller JA, Benowitz NL, Spindel ER. Prenatal nicotine exposure alters pulmonary function in newborn rhesus monkeys. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:989.
- Sekhon HS, Jia Y, Raab R, et al. Prenatal nicotine increases pulmonary alpha7 nicotinic receptor expression and alters fetal lung development in monkeys. J Clin Invest 1999; 103:637.
- Tuthill DP, Stewart JH, Coles EC, et al. Maternal cigarette smoking and pregnancy outcome. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1999; 13:245.
- Substance Profiles: Tobacco Related Exposures, Report on Carcinogens, 11th ed, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. http://.ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/eleventh/profiles/s176toba.pdf. (Accessed on October 19, 2005).
- de la Chica RA, Ribas I, Giraldo J, et al. Chromosomal instability in amniocytes from fetuses of mothers who smoke. JAMA 2005; 293:1212.
- Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Smoking and infertility: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril 2012; 98:1400.
- Zenzes MT. Smoking and reproduction: gene damage to human gametes and embryos. Hum Reprod Update 2000; 6:122.
- Zenzes MT, Wang P, Casper RF. Cigarette smoking may affect meiotic maturation of human oocytes. Hum Reprod 1995; 10:3213.
- US Department of Health and Human Services. Women and Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General, 2001.
- Ellard GA, Johnstone FD, Prescott RJ, et al. Smoking during pregnancy: the dose dependence of birthweight deficits. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 103:806.
- Secker-Walker RH, Vacek PM, Flynn BS, Mead PB. Estimated gains in birth weight associated with reductions in smoking during pregnancy. J Reprod Med 1998; 43:967.
- Juárez SP, Merlo J. Revisiting the effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on offspring birthweight: a quasi-experimental sibling analysis in Sweden. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61734.
- Lieberman E, Gremy I, Lang JM, Cohen AP. Low birthweight at term and the timing of fetal exposure to maternal smoking. Am J Public Health 1994; 84:1127.
- Bernstein IM, Mongeon JA, Badger GJ, et al. Maternal smoking and its association with birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106:986.
- Prabhu N, Smith N, Campbell D, et al. First trimester maternal tobacco smoking habits and fetal growth. Thorax 2010; 65:235.
- Benjamin-Garner R, Stotts A. Impact of smoking exposure change on infant birth weight among a cohort of women in a prenatal smoking cessation study. Nicotine Tob Res 2013; 15:685.
- Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Nicola SE, et al. Factors potentiating the smoking-related risk of fetal growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1994; 101:954.
- McDonald AD, Armstrong BG, Sloan M. Cigarette, alcohol, and coffee consumption and prematurity. Am J Public Health 1992; 82:87.
- Cigarette smoking and the risk of low birth weight: a comparison in black and white women. Alameda County Low Birth Weight Study Group. Epidemiology 1990; 1:201.
- Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Effects of maternal cigarette smoking on birth weight and preterm birth–Ohio, 1989. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1990; 39:662.
- Eskenazi B, Prehn AW, Christianson RE. Passive and active maternal smoking as measured by serum cotinine: the effect on birthweight. Am J Public Health 1995; 85:395.
- Pineles BL, Park E, Samet JM. Systematic review and meta-analysis of miscarriage and maternal exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 2014; 179:807.
- Schramm WF. Smoking during pregnancy: Missouri longitudinal study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1997; 11 Suppl 1:73.
- Raymond EG, Cnattingius S, Kiely JL. Effects of maternal age, parity, and smoking on the risk of stillbirth. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1994; 101:301.
- Cnattingius S, Haglund B, Meirik O. Cigarette smoking as risk factor for late fetal and early neonatal death. BMJ 1988; 297:258.
- Burguet A, Kaminski M, Abraham-Lerat L, et al. The complex relationship between smoking in pregnancy and very preterm delivery. Results of the Epipage study. BJOG 2004; 111:258.
- Cnattingius S, Nordström ML. Maternal smoking and feto-infant mortality: biological pathways and public health significance. Acta Paediatr 1996; 85:1400.
- Cnattingius S, Forman MR, Berendes HW, Isotalo L. Delayed childbearing and risk of adverse perinatal outcome. A population-based study. JAMA 1992; 268:886.
- Ekwo EE, Gosselink CA, Woolson R, Moawad A. Risks for premature rupture of amniotic membranes. Int J Epidemiol 1993; 22:495.
- Hadley CB, Main DM, Gabbe SG. Risk factors for preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes. Am J Perinatol 1990; 7:374.
- Harger JH, Hsing AW, Tuomala RE, et al. Risk factors for preterm premature rupture of fetal membranes: a multicenter case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 163:130.
- Spinillo A, Nicola S, Piazzi G, et al. Epidemiological correlates of preterm premature rupture of membranes. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1994; 47:7.
- Williams MA, Mittendorf R, Stubblefield PG, et al. Cigarettes, coffee, and preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 135:895.
- Cnattingius S. Maternal age modifies the effect of maternal smoking on intrauterine growth retardation but not on late fetal death and placental abruption. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 145:319.
- Raymond EG, Mills JL. Placental abruption. Maternal risk factors and associated fetal conditions. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993; 72:633.
- Ananth CV, Savitz DA, Luther ER. Maternal cigarette smoking as a risk factor for placental abruption, placenta previa, and uterine bleeding in pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144:881.
- Chelmow D, Andrew DE, Baker ER. Maternal cigarette smoking and placenta previa. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 87:703.
- Kramer MD, Taylor V, Hickok DE, et al. Maternal smoking and placenta previa. Epidemiology 1991; 2:221.
- Handler AS, Mason ED, Rosenberg DL, Davis FG. The relationship between exposure during pregnancy to cigarette smoking and cocaine use and placenta previa. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 170:884.
- Monica G, Lilja C. Placenta previa, maternal smoking and recurrence risk. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1995; 74:341.
- McMahon MJ, Li R, Schenck AP, et al. Previous cesarean birth. A risk factor for placenta previa? J Reprod Med 1997; 42:409.
- Zhang J, Fried DB. Relationship of maternal smoking during pregnancy to placenta previa. Am J Prev Med 1992; 8:278.
- Li CQ, Windsor RA, Perkins L, et al. The impact on infant birth weight and gestational age of cotinine-validated smoking reduction during pregnancy. JAMA 1993; 269:1519.
- Cnattingius S, Forman MR, Berendes HW, et al. Effect of age, parity, and smoking on pregnancy outcome: a population-based study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168:16.
- Shiono PH, Klebanoff MA, Rhoads GG. Smoking and drinking during pregnancy. Their effects on preterm birth. JAMA 1986; 255:82.
- Peacock JL, Bland JM, Anderson HR. Preterm delivery: effects of socioeconomic factors, psychological stress, smoking, alcohol, and caffeine. BMJ 1995; 311:531.
- Polakowski LL, Akinbami LJ, Mendola P. Prenatal smoking cessation and the risk of delivering preterm and small-for-gestational-age newborns. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 114:318.
- McCowan LM, Dekker GA, Chan E, et al. Spontaneous preterm birth and small for gestational age infants in women who stop smoking early in pregnancy: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2009; 338:b1081.
- Van den Eeden SK, Karagas MR, Daling JR, Vaughan TL. A case-control study of maternal smoking and congenital malformations. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1990; 4:147.
- Wyszynski DF, Duffy DL, Beaty TH. Maternal cigarette smoking and oral clefts: a meta-analysis. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 1997; 34:206.
- Källén K. Maternal smoking and orofacial clefts. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 1997; 34:11.
- Shaw GM, Wasserman CR, Lammer EJ, et al. Orofacial clefts, parental cigarette smoking, and transforming growth factor-alpha gene variants. Am J Hum Genet 1996; 58:551.
- Christensen K, Olsen J, Nørgaard-Pedersen B, et al. Oral clefts, transforming growth factor alpha gene variants, and maternal smoking: a population-based case-control study in Denmark, 1991-1994. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 149:248.
- Meyer KA, Williams P, Hernandez-Diaz S, Cnattingius S. Smoking and the risk of oral clefts: exploring the impact of study designs. Epidemiology 2004; 15:671.
- Ramirez D, Lammer EJ, Iovannisci DM, et al. Maternal smoking during early pregnancy, GSTP1 and EPHX1 variants, and risk of isolated orofacial clefts. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 2007; 44:366.
- Shi M, Christensen K, Weinberg CR, et al. Orofacial cleft risk is increased with maternal smoking and specific detoxification-gene variants. Am J Hum Genet 2007; 80:76.
- Werler MM, Mitchell AA, Shapiro S. First trimester maternal medication use in relation to gastroschisis. Teratology 1992; 45:361.
- Yuan P, Okazaki I, Kuroki Y. Anal atresia: effect of smoking and drinking habits during pregnancy. Jpn J Hum Genet 1995; 40:327.
- Källén K. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and limb reduction malformations in Sweden. Am J Public Health 1997; 87:29.
- Czeizel AE, Kodaj I, Lenz W. Smoking during pregnancy and congenital limb deficiency. BMJ 1994; 308:1473.
- Lee LJ, Lupo PJ. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of congenital heart defects in offspring: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Pediatr Cardiol 2013; 34:398.
- Sullivan PM, Dervan LA, Reiger S, et al. Risk of congenital heart defects in the offspring of smoking mothers: a population-based study. J Pediatr 2015; 166:978.
- Man LX, Chang B. Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy increases the risk of having a child with a congenital digital anomaly. Plast Reconstr Surg 2006; 117:301.
- Slickers JE, Olshan AF, Siega-Riz AM, et al. Maternal body mass index and lifestyle exposures and the risk of bilateral renal agenesis or hypoplasia: the National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Am J Epidemiol 2008; 168:1259.
- Ever-Hadani P, Seidman DS, Manor O, Harlap S. Breast feeding in Israel: maternal factors associated with choice and duration. J Epidemiol Community Health 1994; 48:281.
- Letson GW, Rosenberg KD, Wu L. Association between smoking during pregnancy and breastfeeding at about 2 weeks of age. J Hum Lact 2002; 18:368.
- Horta BL, Kramer MS, Platt RW. Maternal smoking and the risk of early weaning: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health 2001; 91:304.
- Giglia R, Binns CW, Alfonso H. Maternal cigarette smoking and breastfeeding duration. Acta Paediatr 2006; 95:1370.
- Vio F, Salazar G, Infante C. Smoking during pregnancy and lactation and its effects on breast-milk volume. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54:1011.
- Agostoni C, Marangoni F, Grandi F, et al. Earlier smoking habits are associated with higher serum lipids and lower milk fat and polyunsaturated fatty acid content in the first 6 months of lactation. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003; 57:1466.
- Hill PD, Aldag JC. Smoking and breastfeeding status. Res Nurs Health 1996; 19:125.
- Mennella JA, Yourshaw LM, Morgan LK. Breastfeeding and smoking: short-term effects on infant feeding and sleep. Pediatrics 2007; 120:497.
- Malloy MH, Kleinman JC, Land GH, Schramm WF. The association of maternal smoking with age and cause of infant death. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128:46.
- Hoo AF, Henschen M, Dezateux C, et al. Respiratory function among preterm infants whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:700.
- Tager IB, Ngo L, Hanrahan JP. Maternal smoking during pregnancy. Effects on lung function during the first 18 months of life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:977.
- Lødrup Carlsen KC, Jaakkola JJ, Nafstad P, Carlsen KH. In utero exposure to cigarette smoking influences lung function at birth. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:1774.
- Weissman MM, Warner V, Wickramaratne PJ, Kandel DB. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychopathology in offspring followed to adulthood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38:892.
- Wakschlag LS, Lahey BB, Loeber R, et al. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of conduct disorder in boys. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54:670.
- Timmermans SH, Mommers M, Gubbels JS, et al. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood overweight and fat distribution: the KOALA Birth Cohort Study. Pediatr Obes 2014; 9:e14.
- Martínez-Mesa J, Menezes AM, González DA, et al. Life course association of maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring’s height: data from the 1993 Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort. J Adolesc Health 2012; 51:S53.
- Behl M, Rao D, Aagaard K, et al. Evaluation of the association between maternal smoking, childhood obesity, and metabolic disorders: a national toxicology program workshop review. Environ Health Perspect 2013; 121:170.
- Clifford A, Lang L, Chen R. Effects of maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy on cognitive parameters of children and young adults: a literature review. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2012; 34:560.
- Neuman Å, Hohmann C, Orsini N, et al. Maternal smoking in pregnancy and asthma in preschool children: a pooled analysis of eight birth cohorts. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186:1037.
- Metzger MJ, Halperin AC, Manhart LE, Hawes SE. Association of maternal smoking during pregnancy with infant hospitalization and mortality due to infectious diseases. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2013; 32:e1.
- Jones LL, Hashim A, McKeever T, et al. Parental and household smoking and the increased risk of bronchitis, bronchiolitis and other lower respiratory infections in infancy: systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir Res 2011; 12:5.
- Kenner T, Einspieler C, Haidmayer R. Re: „Sudden infant death syndrome: risk factor profiles for distinct subgroups”. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 149:785.
- Mitchell EA, Tuohy PG, Brunt JM, et al. Risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome following the prevention campaign in New Zealand: a prospective study. Pediatrics 1997; 100:835.
- Alm B, Milerad J, Wennergren G, et al. A case-control study of smoking and sudden infant death syndrome in the Scandinavian countries, 1992 to 1995. The Nordic Epidemiological SIDS Study. Arch Dis Child 1998; 78:329.
- Schellscheidt J, Oyen N, Jorch G. Interactions between maternal smoking and other prenatal risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Acta Paediatr 1997; 86:857.
- Alberg AJ, Korte JE. Invited commentary: Parental smoking as a risk factor for adult tobacco use: can maternal smoking during pregnancy be distinguished from the social environmental influence during childhood? Am J Epidemiol 2014; 179:1418.
- Pauly JR, Slotkin TA. Maternal tobacco smoking, nicotine replacement and neurobehavioural development. Acta Paediatr 2008; 97:1331.
- Jensen TK, Jørgensen N, Punab M, et al. Association of in utero exposure to maternal smoking with reduced semen quality and testis size in adulthood: a cross-sectional study of 1,770 young men from the general population in five European countries. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 159:49.
- Montgomery SM, Ekbom A. Smoking during pregnancy and diabetes mellitus in a British longitudinal birth cohort. BMJ 2002; 324:26
- Ng SP, Silverstone AE, Lai ZW, Zelikoff JT. Effects of prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke on offspring tumor susceptibility and associated immune mechanisms. Toxicol Sci 2006; 89:135.
- Kareli D, Pouliliou S, Nikas I, et al. Effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on fetus: a cytogenetic perspective. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2014; 27:127.
- Voigt M, Neudecker K, Schneider KT, et al. Effects of smoking specified as cigarettes per day and maternal body mass index on hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Z Geburtshilfe Neonatol 2013; 217:24.
- Castles A, Adams EK, Melvin CL, et al. Effects of smoking during pregnancy. Five meta-analyses. Am J Prev Med 1999; 16:208.
- Leonardi-Bee J, Britton J, Venn A. Secondhand smoke and adverse fetal outcomes in nonsmoking pregnant women: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2011; 127:734.
- Crane JM, Keough M, Murphy P, et al. Effects of environmental tobacco smoke on perinatal outcomes: a retrospective cohort study. BJOG 2011; 118:865.
- Salmasi G, Grady R, Jones J, et al. Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and perinatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2010; 89:423.
- Leonardi-Bee J, Smyth A, Britton J, Coleman T. Environmental tobacco smoke and fetal health: systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2008; 93:F351.
- Tong VT, Dietz PM, Farr SL, et al. Estimates of smoking before and during pregnancy, and smoking cessation during pregnancy: comparing two population-based data sources. Public Health Rep 2013; 128:179.
- Alves E, Azevedo A, Correia S, Barros H. Long-term maintenance of smoking cessation in pregnancy: an analysis of the birth cohort generation XXI. Nicotine Tob Res 2013; 15:1598.
- Dolan-Mullen P, Ramírez G, Groff JY. A meta-analysis of randomized trials of prenatal smoking cessation interventions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171:1328.
- Lumley J, Chamberlain C, Dowswell T, et al. Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; :CD001055.
- Myung SK, Ju W, Jung HS, et al. Efficacy and safety of pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation among pregnant smokers: a meta-analysis. BJOG 2012; 119:1029.
- Patnode CD, Henderson JT, Thompson JH, et al. Behavioral Counseling and Pharmacotherapy Interventions for Tobacco Cessation in Adults, Including Pregnant Women: A Review of Reviews for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2015; 163:608.
- AHRQ. Smoking Cessation Interventions in Pregnancy and Postpartum Care http://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/search-for-guides-reviews-and-reports/?pageaction=displayproduct&productID=1871 (Accessed on February 27, 2014).